The three divisions of the book relate respectively to (1)value,(2)labour and capital,and (3)international trade,In the firsthe begins by elucidating the meaning of the word "value,"and under this head controverts the view of Jevons that theexchange value of anything depends entirely on its utility,without,perhaps,distinctly apprehending what Jevons meant bythis proposition.On supply and demand he shows,as Say had done before,that these,regarded as aggregates,are notindependent,but strictly connected and mutually dependent phenomena-identical,indeed,under a system of barter,butunder a money system,conceivable as distinct,Supply and demand with respect to particular commodities must beunderstood to mean supply and demand at a given price;and thus we are introduced to the ideas of market price and normalprice (as,following Cherbuliez,he terms what Smith less happily called natural price).Normal price again leads to theconsideration of cost of production,and here,against Mill and others,he denies that profit and wages enter into cost ofproduction;in other words,he asserts what Senior (whom he does not name)had said before him,though he had notconsistently carried out the nomenclature,that cost of production is the sum of labour and abstinence necessary toproduction,wags and profits being the remuneration of sacrifice and not elements of it.But,it may well be asked,How canan amount of labour be added to an amount of abstinence?Must not wages and profits be taken as "measures of cost "?Byadhering to the conception of,"sacrifice"he exposes the emptiness of the assertion that "dear labour is the great obstacle tothe extension of British trade "--a sentence in which "British trade "means capitalists'profits.At this point we areintroduced to a doctrine now first elaborated,though there are indications of it in Mill,of whose theory of internationalvalues it is in fact an extension.In foreign trade cost of production,in Cairnes's sense,does not regulate values,because itcannot perform that function except under a regime of effective competition,and between different countries effectivecompetition does not exist.But,Cairnes asks,to what extent does it exist in domestic industries?So far as capital isconcerned,he thinks the condition is sufficiently fulfilled over the whole field--a position,let it be said in passing,which hedoes not seem to make out,if we consider the practical immobility of most invested,as distinct from disposable,capital.Butin the case of labour the requisite competition takes place only within certain social,or rather industrial,strata.The world ofindustry may be divided into a series of superposed groups,and these groups are practically:"non-competing,"thedisposable labour in any one of them being rarely capable of choosing its field in a higher.(57)The law that cost of productiondetermines price cannot,therefore,be absolutely stated respecting domestic any more than respecting internationalexchange,.as it fails for the latter universally,so it fails for the former as between non-competing groups.The law that holdsbetween these is similar to that governing international values,which may be called the equation of reciprocal demand.Sucha state of relative prices will establish itself amongst the products of these groups as shall enable that portion of the productsof each group which is applied to the purchase of the products of all other groups to discharge its liabilities towards thoseother groups.The reciprocal demand of the groups determines the "average relative level "of prices within each group;whilst cost of production regulates the distribution of price among the individual products of each group This theorem isperhaps of no great practical value;but the tendency of the whole investigation is to attenuate the importance of cost ofproduction as a regulator of normal price,and so to show that yet another of the accepted doctrines of the science had beenpropounded in too rigid and absolute a form.As to market price,the formula by which Mill had defined it as the price whichequalises demand and supply Cairnes shows to be an identical proposition,and he defines it as the price which mostadvantageously adjusts the existing supply to the existing demand pending the coming forward of fresh supplies from thesources of production.
同类推荐
热门推荐
独宠血妃:邪王,无赖
又是一个月圆之时,她,再度失控,差点杀死了自己最在意的人,为什么会这样?她的魂魄,竟是现代穿越而来的!王牌特工,再一次任务失败,喝下了特制“饮料”,控制了神经和大脑,到了月圆之时就会发作。她,一直在寻找解药。奈何她的血到病发的第二天又恢复了红色,不再是黑色,没了线索,无法对症下药。“喂!小猫,你怎么了?”一个慵懒有磁性的薄荷音响起。“走开,不关你事!别碰我!小心小命不保!”[病发ing]“挺有意思的,第一次听见有人这么跟我说话。”[坏坏的笑]“或许……我能治好你的病呢?”血染华夏之空间重生之女
她是孤儿,在孤儿院里,她与一个很要好的姐妹被神秘的组织带走,当时她们还不知道怎么回事,只因那男人的一句话“如果想活下去,就加入了这个组织”她与那个姐妹开始非人一般的训练,长大成人后成为世界顶尖杀手,并分别获得了称号,夜七、火狐。却因火狐的嫉妒,使她命丧于别墅。一朝重生,借尸还魂,空间在手,天下我有。她不再懦弱,不在隐忍,开始她的强大逆袭之路!傻瓜与笨蛋——谁也不后悔
记得,他那张充满稚气的脸,又帅又拽的样子,在脑海中浮现。桃花林中,漫天纷飞的桃花瓣。“你长得这么笨,长大了没人会要你。算了,我大发慈悲,将来我娶你。免得你没人要。”他信誓旦旦地讲。“少臭美,我才不要你呢。你才没人要。”她不领情。“真是笨蛋一个。”他坏坏地笑着说。“你…傻瓜……”她不甘输地骂回去。“笨蛋。”“傻瓜。”“……”小时候的约定,长大后能否兑现?不得以分开了,会不会再遇到?长大后的相遇,会发生什么呢?