登陆注册
15424600000047

第47章 Chapter II(18)

Here we have the distinction already noticed.The so-called 'thing'may be merely a collection of separate things,and we can discover the 'laws'applicable to all by combining the laws applicable to each.From a given 'collocation'we can infer past or future 'collocations,'and one set of results can be added to or superposed upon the other.But when we proceed to chemical or organic compounds,we have 'heteropathic'laws.The compound may be analysed into elements,but we cannot derive the properties of the compounds from the properties of the elements.Hydrogen and oxygen can be combined into the form of water;but we could not infer the properties of water from the properties of the hydrogen and oxygen taken apart.In organic compounds,the problem is still more intricate.We have to consider a series of inter-related changes taking place within the organism,and dependent partly upon the 'environment'and partly upon the complex constitution of the organism itself.It is a unit in so far as all its properties manifest an organic law or a system of organic laws.Individuals may differ from external causes as plants,for example,in different soils,and in that case we may regard the differences as simply derivative.Differences which belong to the organic law itself indicate differences of kind;and these are ultimate for us,so long as we cannot trace the way in which they are dependent upon differences of constitution.

These,roughly stated,are the facts which Mill recognises.Now,in any case whatever,we can only 'explain'a fact by assuming both 'collocation'and 'causation';or,in other words,we must have a statement of facts and of laws.Our analysis of the phenomena will in all cases come to showing how a given state results from,or results in,a previous or succeeding state.If new properties appear from the combination of simpler elements,we should infer that they result,though we may be quite unable in the existing state of knowledge to show how they result,from the properties of those elements.The properties do not manifest themselves,and are therefore not discoverable,till the combination is formed;and are thus only known to us 'empirically.'No process of reasoning,that is,can be adduced to show that they must result from the combination.But,in the case supposed,we do not doubt that they do result,and we assume that the elements had certain latent properties not previously discoverable.This,however,is the point upon which Mill diverges,owing,as I think,to his imperfect view of causation.

The doctrine of 'kinds,'in fact,gives the answer to Mill's old problem,why a single instance is sometimes conclusive,whereas any number of instances may sometimes fail to give certainty.It is this reciprocal connection between the properties of a 'kind'which justifies the inference from one set of attributes to another attribute --the inference implied in all induction.But Mill's interpretation of the fact seems strangely inconsistent.His favourite instance is the black crow.

I have seen a million black crows.Can I say that the million and oneth crow will be black?To answer this we must ask whether blackness is a property of 'kind.'(79)If the blackness be,'as it were,an accident,'or not a property of kind,it must,he says,be a case of causation.If not a case of causation,it must be a property of kind.Hence we have the singular result,that if the coexistence be casual,it is caused,and if invariable,not caused.As 'causation'means according to him simply unconditional connection,the statement seems to be especially paradoxical.It is,however,explicable.

The blackness of the crow may be regarded as 'accidental,'if it is due to the external cause.The crow,perhaps,has fallen into a paint-pot.The blackness is 'caused,'then,by the properties of paint and by the 'accidental'collocation.It is an 'accident'in the crow,though caused in respect of the general arrangements of the universe.But why,if a property of 'kind,'should it be called 'not caused'?Here we have a curious result of Mill's view of causation.Our natural reply would be that the colour is still caused as everything else is caused.(80)We assume,that is,that 'crow'implies such a constitution that under a given environment crows will be black.Change something outside the crow and he may turn white.Or find a white crow in the same 'environment,'and we infer some difference in his constitution.There is a relation,we assume,though we cannot specify its nature,which determines the colour,and as in all cases we have at once collocation and causation.Here is Mill's peculiar difficulty.Causation,as he is profoundly convinced,always means a beginning.It is only,as we have seen,concerned with changes,not with persistence.Therefore,if two things,like blackness and crowness,exist side by side,it is a case of collocation,and consequently,as he supposes,not a case of causation.He cannot recognise a reciprocal relation,although it is clear that if one thing is found always to accompany another,the argument is the same as though one always followed another.

同类推荐
  • 圣武亲征录

    圣武亲征录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 玄真灵应宝签

    玄真灵应宝签

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • The Life and Letters

    The Life and Letters

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 凤洲杂编

    凤洲杂编

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • Sister Carrie

    Sister Carrie

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
热门推荐
  • 傲娇女孩,和你一起的日子

    傲娇女孩,和你一起的日子

    苗夏夏不知道江涵喜欢的是她,还是自己。他总是误会夏夏,夏夏总是装作无所谓,但心却很痛。
  • 彩云之都红色之恋

    彩云之都红色之恋

    美丽的彩云,记忆着很多美丽的爱情故事,就像梁云和慕欣兰。大起大落的人生却给梁云带来一份悲喜交加的爱情…
  • 自然世界冰尘

    自然世界冰尘

    星空破灭,冰座崩摧,王道颠覆。暗流涌动之际,少年挺身而出,以一己之力,相抗于上族,斩神灵,断星门。历经无尽艰险,终成冰尘之心,守护这小小世间。
  • 梦美易碎

    梦美易碎

    她,二十一世纪的少女,因为一次不知所以的情况下穿越到了古代,成为了唐家大小姐。但在这个时代里,怎么可能有和平和安宁。在面对亲情、友情、爱情、背叛、杀戮,她还会保持着原本的那颗心吗?面对冷酷无情且只对她一个人温柔的杜霆锋,她只能说一句:如果有下辈子,我一定会偿还今生欠你的情。面对玩世不恭的夏凌风,因为吵闹两颗心渐渐靠拢。当一切默然回守,面对仇恨,她只能把爱深深的埋藏在心底。她绝情的说出这句话,只希望他能离她远远的,这样才能避免他受到伤害:梁山伯与祝英台之所以能成为传奇,是因为世界上只有一个祝英台,真爱也只能上演一次,所以论不到我。……我想和你发展一段不一样的爱情,超越它之后的爱情,我会守着你,让你成为最幸福的人。当一切的结束,何去何从她该如何选择………
  • 复仇冷公主的霸道酷王子

    复仇冷公主的霸道酷王子

    十年前,她.软弱.母亲被杀十年前,她.善良被姐姐陷害十年前,她.信任.被妹妹推下悬崖她们和别的女孩不一样,别人在玩的时候,她们要在1000个人的名额里活下去,别人在玩的时候,她们在训练,从来没有人知道她们有多么的辛苦,但——辛苦是值得的,因为她们要——复仇
  • 古代水利工程

    古代水利工程

    《中国文化知识读本:古代水利工程》水利是中国古代农业社会的命脉。几千年来,勤劳勇敢、自强不息、智慧善良的中国人民同江河湖海进行了艰苦卓绝的斗争,修建了无数个大大小小的水利工程,如都江堰、郑国渠、京抗大运河等。这些水利工程不仅规模巨大,而且设计水平也非常高,有力地促进了农业生产,不仅给当时的人们带来益处,而且泽被后世,影响深远。
  • 火澜

    火澜

    当一个现代杀手之王穿越到这个世界。是隐匿,还是崛起。一场血雨腥风的传奇被她改写。一条无上的强者之路被她踏破。修斗气,炼元丹,收兽宠,化神器,大闹皇宫,炸毁学院,打死院长,秒杀狗男女,震惊大陆。无止尽的契约能力,上古神兽,千年魔兽,纷纷前来抱大腿,惊傻世人。她说:在我眼里没有好坏之分,只有强弱之分,只要你能打败我,这世间所有都是你的,打不败我,就从这世间永远消失。她狂,她傲,她的目标只有一个,就是凌驾这世间一切之上。三国皇帝,魔界妖王,冥界之主,仙界至尊。到底谁才是陪着她走到最后的那个?他说:上天入地,我会陪着你,你活着,有我,你死,也一定有我。本文一对一,男强女强,强强联手,不喜勿入。
  • 竹马翻译官II

    竹马翻译官II

    从小深爱女主却隐藏自己的感情。重逢时,抱着时,亲吻时,原本以为这一辈子都不可能在这样跟她亲密的感情时,才发现,原来放弃她,他比谁都还要舍不得。似乎从一开始就已经注定,那个叫苏微恙的女子,是上帝赐给他的天敌。她的记忆是在五岁那年开始变得美丽的,其实命运待她不薄,五岁的时候就认识他,七岁的时候懂得什么是情。在分离的时候,她对他只说了一句话:“我总是赢,只输过你。”青梅竹马的感情因为两个家庭忽然的变故在他们之间划下一道不可逾越的冰峰。三年后的再次重逢,命运两个不懂爱的人绑在一起。婚后的相处让她又期盼又害怕。面对冷漠的他,她该何去何从?
  • 萌女遇上爱

    萌女遇上爱

    萌女小二货恋上极品男,怎知上了大学,亲眼目睹男神表白他人,心灰意冷碰到贴心校草,一连串搞笑温暖爱意浓浓的故事。
  • 今夕月引思

    今夕月引思

    现世,一人孤身,背负前世的秘密,却在今夕阁,葬送了一生。异世,再度苏醒在今夕阁,身躯尽失,乱世之中的一缕魑魅,且试风云,步入神族后尘。只是,当她闯尽异世的风花雪月,最终能陪伴她的,依然还是前世的那个,朝她开枪的故人。“思思,你可知,我依然念你未遂?”