登陆注册
15424600000033

第33章 Chapter II(4)

Predication,according to the elder,is a process of naming.Apredicate is a name of the same thing of which the subject is a name;and to predicate is simply to assert this identity of names.This doctrine,as Mill thinks,is equally implied in the dictum de omni et nullo which is taken as the explanation of the syllogism.We have arbitrarily put a number of things in a class,and to 'reason'is simply to repeat of each what we have said of all.This is to put the cart before the horse,or to assume that the classification precedes the reason for classification,though probably the theory,thus nakedly stated,would not be granted by any one.(20)What,then,is the true theory?That is explained by the distinction between 'connotation'and 'denotation,'which Mill accepted (though inverting the use of the words)from his father.A general name such as 'man'denotes John,Thomas,and other individuals.It connotes certain 'attributes,'such as rationality and a certain shape.When,therefore,I say that John is a man,I say that he has the attributes 'connoted';and when Isay that all men are mortal,I assert that along with the other attributes of man goes the attribute of mortality.(21)Predication,then,in general,involves the attribute of 'relation.'We may assert the simple existence of a 'quality,'or,which is the same thing,of a 'sensation';but to say that John is a man.or that men are mortal,or to make any of the general propositions which constitute knowledge,is to assert some of those 'relations'which are perceived when we consider two or more things together.

'Things,'then,so far as knowable are clusters (in Hartley's language)of 'attributes';and the attributes may be equally regarded as 'feelings.'To predicate is to refer a thing to one of the clusters,and therefore to assert its possession of the attributes connoted.I will only note in passing that by declining to go into the metaphysical question as to the difference between 'attributes'and 'sensations,'or thoughts and things,Mill leaves an obscurity at the foundation of his philosophy.But leaving this for the present,it is enough to say that we have our five possible types of predication.(22)All propositions may be reduced to one of the forms.Things exist or coexist or follow or resemble or are cause or effect.(23)The next problem,therefore,is,How are these propositions to be proved?or,by what tests is our belief to be justified.

What may be the nature of belief itself is a question which Mill leaves to the analytical psychologist,(24)who,as he admits,will probably find it puzzling,if not hopeless.But as we all agree that somehow or other we attain knowledge,we may inquire what is implied in the process.Now,some part of our knowledge obviously depends upon 'experience.'We know of any particular fact from the testimony of our senses.We know that London Bridge exists because we have seen and touched it;and it would be obviously hopeless to try to deduce ts existence from the principle of the excluded middle.London Bridge would then be something independent of time and place.But do we not want something more than bare experience when we lay down a general rule is a law of nature?Then we not only say 'is,'but 'must be';and this,according to the Intuitionist,marks the introduction of something more than an appeal to 'experience.'

There are truths,he says,which represent 'laws of thought';which are self-evident,or perceived by 'intuition';or the contrary of which is 'inconceivable.'Without some such laws,we could not bind together the shifting data of experience,or advance from 'is'to 'must be,'or even to 'will be.'We lose all certainty,and fall into the scepticism of Hume,which makes belief a mere 'custom,'regards all things as distinct atoms conjoined but not connected,and holds that 'anything may be the cause of anything.'Mill's aim is to explode the intuitions without falling into the scepticism.Necessary truths,he holds,are mere figments.All knowledge whatever is of the empirical type.'This has been'justifies 'this will be.'Empirical truths clearly exist,and are held undoubtingly,although they have no foundation except experience.Nobody ever doubted that all men die;yet no 'proof'of the fact could be ever suggested,before physiology was created,except the bare fact that all men have died.If physiology has made the necessity more evident,it has not appreciably strengthened the conviction.We all believe even now that thunder will follow lightning,though nobody has been able to show why it should follow.The ultimate proof in countless cases,if not in all,is simply that some connection has been observed,and,in many such cases,the belief reaches a pitch which excludes all perceptible doubt.As a fact,then,belief of the strongest kind can be generated from simple experience.The burthen of proof is upon those who assume different origins for different classes of truth.(25)

II.SYLLOGISM AND DEFINITION

同类推荐
  • 佛说无能胜大明王陀罗尼经

    佛说无能胜大明王陀罗尼经

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 丹阳真人直录

    丹阳真人直录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 搜神记

    搜神记

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 台湾杂咏合刻

    台湾杂咏合刻

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
  • 第一香笔记

    第一香笔记

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。
热门推荐
  • 七朵加一园丁

    七朵加一园丁

    一朵安静,一朵括噪,一朵骄傲,一朵神秘,一朵搞笑,一朵疯狂,一朵慢热。因为一首玉生烟,让她们这七个互不相干的人走到了一起,还认识那个园丁——老师。究竟会有怎样的摩擦,怎样的磨合,怎样的疯狂,怎样的欢闹,以及最后的淡忘·······
  • 异梦录之龙将归来

    异梦录之龙将归来

    一位问题少年,一次意外事件,一个奇异世界,一场三界大战。在鲜血与热泪的地狱中,在新仇与旧恨的深渊里,他该如何存在?
  • 倾世三小姐:魔帝大大请走开

    倾世三小姐:魔帝大大请走开

    当全能特工穿越到异世大陆,貌若无颜?灵武废材?爹娘失踪?no,no,no封印一解,倾城倾世,灵武双修,自带随身空间,附赠傲娇萌宝一枚,一袭红衣闯天下,桃花朵朵,神兽多多,“娘子,该回家了”某男不镇定了,一把扛起某女回家。简介实在无能,请原谅(つд?)
  • 魔王,我错了

    魔王,我错了

    杀人如麻的恶魔,也会有爱的人。他曾说:“若我爱上了你,你若背叛我,哼!我定叫你生不如死!”他是魔鬼,生来便有主宰世界的野心,可怕的灵伴随周围,常常控制不住,她,本是精灵的彼岸灵花,纯洁无暇的她是治愈他的灵药。她说:“你是这样的可怕,我却爱上了不该爱的你,如此,我宁愿从来都没有遇见你,忘记,是我最好的选择……”封印于灵族禁地之内,删除彼此记忆,当你再次看见我,你会不会想起?彼岸花开!魔心依存的他被她派去体验爱的感觉,然而他是否会在不同世界中完成爱的结局?懂得爱的真理,他是否会记得彼岸?(作者大大也会吐槽一下啦,这位魔王凤魅即使没了法力,也是一样的冷漠哦!但他很霸道啦●▽●)
  • 重生之在世王者

    重生之在世王者

    一个小混混,居然穿越了,成为在世王者,经过努力,有了自己的一番天地,斗智斗勇,面对敌人的他丝毫不惧,可偏偏对他的老婆们。。。。
  • 帝少宠妻:老婆大人要亲亲

    帝少宠妻:老婆大人要亲亲

    婚前,穆宸使用了一点小计谋让夏晨曦嫁给他。婚后,夏晨曦夜夜求饶。终于有一天,夏晨曦再也受不了,双手叉腰道:“我不干了!我要离婚!”某个人邪魅一笑,脱衣服道:“看来是我的服务不够周到,我这就来满足你。”……(宠文,不喜吻喷)
  • 英雄联盟之最强王者

    英雄联盟之最强王者

    生命不息,竞技不止!“总有一天,我会让五星红旗,在电竞赛场上迎风飘扬!”——秦洛
  • 天书夜谈:流云佩

    天书夜谈:流云佩

    多少离人化作蒹葭?半朝遗恨埋进诗画。是谁打开枷锁又锁了它?浩荡江湖不够冲一壶茶?落花潮水为谁恨?多少梦醉付泪痕?踏绝桑田,独历练,争华年;少年影翩,峥嵘间,修罗迁;千秋夜,枯骨卸,涅槃生死劫;翻云间,苍穹赋,龙印传诗篇!铁马染霜痕,将军白发生。千军踏黄昏,此生化湮尘。一世痴傻,为他!一生戎马,无她!
  • 傲视升仙

    傲视升仙

    天辰于弱小时重生来过,这一世他要一身护家人,朋友,爱人。与他们一起破天地屏障,傲视升仙!
  • 晓梦长生

    晓梦长生

    十六岁那年,是人生中的花季,十七岁那年,是雨季。我只是期待着成长,却忘记太过娇嫩的花朵终会被风吹雨打去,我的一生就葬送在绵绵的雨季。时光清浅,而梦是那么悠长,一世遗憾,可否重生?幸而上天终归是厚待我的,也不枉百雀驾云而来。我此生注定尊荣华贵,区区一国之母怎担得起五彩祥云?一朝重生回到十二岁,孟长生还是孟长生,却再也不是梦长生。既然恪守礼规换不来安宁,那倾一个天下又如何?子姝的qq群:321222760微博链接:weibo.com/zishu123